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2021. vol. 18. No. 4
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Special Theme of the Issue.
Psychological Diagnostics: New Approaches and Methods
Aleksei Korneev
Editorial
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661–663
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664–684
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The paper presents the results of approbation of the Russian Version of the Self-Perceived Employability Scale. 715 employees completed the Russian version of the SPE Scale. Research on the representative Russian sample revealed good consistency and test-retest reliability of the SPE Scale (the correlation ranged from 0.56 to 0.72), confirming the factor structure, validity, and reliability of the psychodiagnostic tool. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFI) supported the factor structure of the SPE Scale. The CFI results are following: x2 = 77.577, df = 29, CMIN/DF 2.675, p = 0.000, GFI = 0.944, AGF = 0.893, CFI = 0.847, RMSEA = 0.057 [90% CI 0.042–0.072], PCLOSE = 0.216, HOELTER = 285. The consistency of the subscales is as follows: the internal self-perceived employability (alpha reliability coefficients, a = 0.642), the self-valuation outside current organization (a = 0.595), the perceived value of the occupation outside the current organization (a = 0.761). The results on convergent and discriminant validity of the scale are confirmed by the correlation analysis, which shows a high score of all subscales of the SPE Scale with a sense of success in professional activities (ranging from 0.442 to 0.288 for the perceived value of the occupation outside current organization, p < 0.01), the calm and balance (from 0.308), the active problem-solving strategy (0.385, p < 0.01), the level of professional aspirations (0.395, p < 0.01), the sense of the social environment support (0.300, p < 0.01). The pursuit of excellence and the subjective value of the activity demonstrates a significant correlation with the internal self-perceived employability (0.364, p < 0.01), but not the external self-perceived employability. All subscales, especially the internal self-perceived employability are negatively correlated with job insecurity (-0.499, p < 0.01). According to the results of our approbation, the Self-Perceived Employability Scale can be considered a reliable and valid psychodiagnostic tool in Russia. |
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685–699
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The article presents the results of approbation of the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy in Russia. Unlike other methods aimed at diagnosing empathy available to a Russian-speaking researcher, this questionnaire demonstrates good psychometric properties and is suitable for measuring both cognitive and affective empathy. 788 participants aged 18-66 (M = 26, SD = 10.1; 707 females и 81 males) took part in the study. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the factor structure of the original QCAE, both models tested demonstrate acceptable goodness of fit indices. Its scales showed good internal consistency, its subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency. Convergent validity is confirmed by correlations with scales of emotional intelligence, psychopathy, Machiavellianism. Cognitive empathy correlated positively with all subscales of emotional intelligence, affective empathy correlated positively with interpersonal emotional intelligence, but negatively with intrapersonal emotional intelligence. Psychopathy and Machiavellianism correlated negatively with affective empathy and one subscale of cognitive empathy. The levels of affective empathy were found to be higher in women than men; no gender differences in the levels of cognitive empathy were found. The results make it possible to consider the suggested version of the questionnaire as a tool for assessing cognitive and affective empathy. Russian version of QCAE can be used for future assessment of empathy in both clinical and research practice, including cross-cultural studies. |
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700–717
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Studies show the connection between the self-efficacy of a counselor (or psychotherapist) and his success in professional and educational spheres. There are several self-efficacy assessment scales, but they have some problems associated with the situation, when entry-level professionals cannot assess their self-efficacy in high-level complexity tasks. There is no Russian-language tool to assess psychologist’s self-efficacy. The aim of the article is to develop a Russian-language tool for measuring counselor’s self-efficacy in three types of skills: problem-solving skills (explore/insight/ action), session management skills, and skills for managing complex clinical situations. This aim was achieved in the three steps: 1. Counselor Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) was translated and adapted; 2. The reliability-consistency and structure of the subscales in the translated questionnaire were checked using methods of mathematical statistics; 3. Translated questionnaire was validated using the following questionnaires: Emotional Intelligence questionnaire by D.V. Lyusin, Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) by Davis in adaptation by T.D. Karyagina, N.V. Kuhtova, and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) in the adaptation by E.N. Osin. Sample of the study consisted of 412 practicing counselors and psychotherapists. The results are comparable with the data on the original version of the CASES questionnaire and allow us to talk about the construct validity of the Russian-language Self-Efficacy Scale. The developed questionnaire can be used to assess the self-efficacy of the Russian-speaking counselors and psychotherapists. The obtained questionnaire can be used to solve the following practical and theoretical problems: monitoring the educational progress in psychotherapeutic trainings, studying the factors that increase the self-efficacy and studying the degree to which self-efficacy assessments vary depending on specific client cases. |
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718–747
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In this work we discuss the advantages and limitations in using moderated confirmatory factor analysis (MCFA) in studies of intelligence structure in the context of Spearman's Law of Diminishing Returns (SLODR). A simple one-factor model was estimated on large samples of simulated data and real results of intelligence tests using MCFA. The simulated data represent large datasets (about 10,000 “respondents” in each dataset) and simulate some specific situations: the SLODR effect, the heteroscedasticity of the residuals (an increase in error along with an increase in the general IQ factor), asymmetry in the distribution of the g-factor, and a high density of easy tasks in the test. The real data consist of the results of IQ testing of 11,388 adult respondents. The model was estimated on each of the datasets, with factor scores obtained by the principal component analysis used as a moderator. Factor loadings and residuals were moderated, both separately and simultaneously. The results showed that (1) the simultaneous moderation of factor loadings and residuals may give inadequate results in some cases; (2) the SLODR effect can be expressed by various combinations of the distribution asymmetry of factor scores and an increase in error variances along the g-factor; (3) within the framework of classical psychometrics, it is probably impossible to distinguish between the real SLODR effect and the false one generated by the selection of respondents; (4) two known sources of asymmetry of distributions in intelligence testing - unequal density of tasks of varying difficulty and selection of respondents are easily detected in simulated pure form, but it is not so easy to do with the real data. (5) It may be difficult to interpret directly the results of MCFA due to its closeness and opacity: it is shown that the moderation of the error variance can be replaced by the analysis of regression residuals, and the interpretation of the moderation of factor loadings can be improved if it is accompanied by an analysis of the asymmetries of the distributions of variables and factor scores. |
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748–769
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Some artificial intelligence methods for reliable identification of personality traits in speech can be useful for upgrade of psycho-diagnostics. Such tools should be developed by psychologists, linguists and computer scientists jointly, and therefore a preliminary special methodology and organization are required. The described in our paper original tool for analyzing written text was created at the Artificial Intelligence Research Institute of National Institute for Research in Computer Science and Control of RAS under the guidance of Dr. of Physical and Mathematical Sciences G.S. Osipov in collaboration with the members of Mental Health Research Center, the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Perm State University. G.S. Osipov proposed a method of relational-situational analysis of text (RSA) based on the ideas of the communicative grammar of the Russian language by G.A. Zolotova, and this approach is implemented in the tool. Analysis of the text using the tool “RSA Machine” turns it into a set of predicate-role structures that are associated with the specifics of the author's worldview. The RSA machine identifies 127 semantic features and semantic roles, and includes a set of psycholinguistic indicators and data of specially created groups of thematic lexis, extracts a total of 197 indicators from texts. The empirical studies have been conducted and have shown some singularities of texts written by people with certain psychological characteristics (according to psychodiagnostic methods and expert opinion), as well as with a psychiatric status (schizophrenia and clinical depression), and these results can be utilized for diagnosis and monitoring. By using the data that the RSA machine receives for further machine learning, it can adapt and develop according with specific research tasks. |
Articles
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770–791
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The paper presents an empirical study of adherence attitudes to wearing face masks during the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic in Russia (October 2020, N=884). The new questionnaire on adherence attitudes to wearing face masks is presented. It consists of 7 scales of attitudes, which determine adherence to mask wearing regulations. The structure of attitudes was described by a hierarchical model with a general factor of adherence attitude, three second-order factors with respect to the “discomfort related to face coverings”, “perceived threat of COVID-19 for oneself and others”, “rational assessment of COVID-19 pandemic”, and 7 factors of specific attitudes according to the questionnaire. The latter were 1) prosociality, 2) tolerance to physical discomfort caused by masks, 3) fear for oneself and friends and relatives, 4) COVID-19 anti-conspiracy beliefs, 5) comfort of communication while wearing a mask, 6) acceptance of restrictions of individual freedom, 7) stability of self-esteem. The specific attitudes significantly differentiated groups of participants, which differed in their adherence to mask wearing regulations and in their motivation for inconsistent adherence. Socio-demographic differences in attitudes and adherence to mask wearing regulations are described. It was revealed that on the attitudinal level, men were less oriented towards adherence to mask regime. Compared to women, they expressed less prosociality and less tolerance to physical discomfort caused by masks, associated wearing masks with manifestation of weakness, underestimated COVID-19 threat for themselves and for their relatives and friends. In conclusion, the issue of unidimensionality of self-reports of adherence attitudes is discussed. We sum up that prosocialilty as an attitude towards necessity to care about health of other people plays the central role in the adherence attitudes structure. Directions for elaboration of practical guidelines to sustain adherence to restricting regulations during COVID-19 pandemic for different groups of participants are outlined. |
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792–812
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The article presents the results of research on visual recognition of Russian sound-imitative (SI) words by native speakers (N = 106) in a lexical decision task. Each subject was presented with 64 non-words and 64 target stimuli (a total of 128 stimuli). The target stimuli were equally represented by neutral (non-SI) words and SI words (32 words each). SI words were divided into 4 groups (8 words per group) according to the principle of reducing the degree of iconicity, understood as the loss of sound imitative properties in the process of language evolution, so that the most iconic (explicit) SI words were assigned to group 1, and completely de-iconized SI words were assigned to group 4. The target stimuli were monosyllabic low-frequency words (from 0.4 imp to 18.3 imp, M = 5.3 imp). The results revealed speed and accuracy rates of SI words recognition depending on their de-iconization stage (loss of iconicity). The findings show that explicit SI words were recognized most slowly and with the largest number of errors. We assume that this can be attributed to the fact that they belong to the class of immutable words. De-iconized words, however, having all the characteristics of notional parts of speech, were recognized faster than non-SI words. We suggest that the interaction of SI and the part of speech of a visually perceived word affects the process of cognitive processing. It is noteworthy that recognition of non-integrated imitative words requires more cognitive resources than recognition of words fully integrated into the language system. |
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813–836
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The research is focused on the problem of personality reaching its self-identity through identification and de-identification with the Self through the significant Other during a reflexive dialog. Personological approach was used to solve this problem, based on consistent creation and mutual refraction of conceptual, cultural-phenomenological and reflexive-dialogical models of identification and de-identification of I with Self in relation to the Other. The research is interdisciplinary in nature, based on domestic and foreign sources relevant to the study of self-identity. The article presents the results of an empirical study conducted with the method of reflexive interviews and devoted to the research on internal dialogue between the Self and the Other; the subject of the study was the respondents' quality of "openness to experience." The novelty of the study consists, firstly, in raising the issue of self-identity in terms of paradoxically inseparable unity of identification and de-identification with the Self as opposite to self-actions. Secondly, the research offers psychological consideration of the importance of the Other in mediating the acts of identification and de-identification of I with Self during a reflexive dialog between I and the Other. Thirdly, the existing understanding of the genesis of the dialogical Self is enriched by the idea of the structure of dimensions of the internal dialog I — Other, considered as the dynamics of identification and de-identification of I with the Self. Fourthly, the processes of identification and de-identification with the Self and reaching self-identity are analyzed from the point of view of search and discovery of the unknown Self. Fifthly, empirical research resulted in defining of the forms of self-identity in the aspect of openness to experience, which depend on the level and dynamics of identification and de-identification of I with the Self though the Other. There are developing, maturing, controversial, rigid and regressing self-identity among those forms. |
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837–857
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Modern existential analysis, as a school of psychological science and practice, is developing through dialogue with philosophy, academic psychology, theoretical models and practical methods of various approaches in psychotherapy. In the last decade this dialogue has led to a significant development of ideas about the spiritual dimension of a human being, which form the basis of existential-analytical anthropology — the differentiation of phenomenal manifestations of the spiritual dimension into the Self and the Person and the corresponding conceptualization. This article systematizes the ideas developed in the recent works of A. Längle regarding the spiritual Self as a center of self-consciousness, decision-making and volitional activity of an individual, and the spiritual Person as the center of orientation in the field of the essence of being. |
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858–870
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The article presents the results of the study exploring the influence of social networks on characteristics of volitional regulation in young people. Three groups of users of the social network VKontakte, differing in the time spent on the resource, as well as in the nature of online activity (“Up to 1 hour”, “From 1 to 3 hours”, “More than 3 hours”) were compared. In total, 450 users aged 18 to 25 years old (average age 22.5 years) took part in the study. The sample consisted of 225 men and 225 women, university students or young professionals with higher education, single or unmarried, childless, living in large cities of the Russian Federation. The following methods were used: The Action Control Scale by J. Kuhl; the "Questionnaire for revealing the expression of self-control in the emotional sphere, activity and behavior"; the technique for self-assessment of volitional qualities; the Purpose in Life Test. Users who spend less than 1 hour a day in social networks are characterized by a more effective type of volitional regulation, strength of social and behavioral self-control, high self-estimation of volitional qualities, as well as a high meaningfulness of life. Users who spend more than 3 hours in social networks, on the contrary, are characterized by a less effective type of volitional regulation, low manifestation of social and behavioral self-control, low self-estimation of volitional qualities, as well as insufficient meaningfulness of life. |
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871–887
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At universities for students, the COVID-19 pandemic and the introduced anti-pandemic measures turned out to be psycho-traumatic factors that increased the experience of loneliness. The purpose of the study was to investigate the prevalence of the phenomenon of loneliness among university students in five European countries, taking into account the variety of anti-COVID measures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using the UCLA Loneliness Scale, questionnaires of 2316 students. In Russia, Poland and Ukraine a hard lockdown was introduced during the pandemic. Lithuania (in the first months) did not undertake severe restrictions, and for a long time the danger of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was not recognized in Belarus. The students in Lithuania and Belarus, 33 and 35 points. Students from Poland, Russia and Ukraine: 38, 37, 37 points, respectively. All respondents were classified according to three levels of loneliness experience. A low level (<40) was noted in 1,510 cases (65.2%), medium (40‒60) — 740 people (32.0%), high (>60) experience of loneliness — 66 respondents (2.8%). Among the representatives of Lithuania and Belarus, a low level of subjective feeling of loneliness prevailed (about 70% of respondents), while in Ukraine, Russia and Poland the share of low indicators was significantly less, respectively, 65.2%, 59.8% and 57.8%. University students from five countries who participated in the study do not experience high levels of loneliness. Gradation of the prevalence of feelings of loneliness from minimum to maximum in comparison is as follows: LT — BY — RU—UA—PL. The severity of loneliness is associated with the levels of restrictions in the countries during the pandemic. |
Reviews
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888–906
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Substitute family care for orphaned children and children left without parental care is accompanied by cases of its disruption, the number of which increases with the intensity of placement of children in families. Studies of the causes of disruption were conducted in Russia and abroad, and their numerous results require an analytical review. The objective of the current work is to analyze results of psychological studies on disruption of substitute care. The review reveals that the research is focused mostly on characteristics of foster children and substitute families that increase the risk of the refusal to continue substituted upbringing, as well as on the specifics of the relations between a foster child and their relatives. The discussion emphasizes that the disruption of substitute care is a complex phenomenon associated with characteristics of children and their substitute parents, as well as with the influence of child’s relatives on the substitute family. The conclusion highlights the need to improve the quality of training of substitute parents and to implement the evidence-based intervention programs for children and parents in substitute families. |
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907–929
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The article provides an overview of the existing approaches of research on the phenomenon of insight and explication of its criteria. The authors identified two research approaches to insight: a detection of insight before a solution and after a solution of cognitive tasks. The first approach based on the usage of classical insight tasks, which include the need for representational change; any solution of these tasks classified as an insight. The second approach based on the solvers' self-reports when solvers evaluate solutions of various types of tasks; the tasks can be solved with an insight or without an insight (anagrams, rebuses, puzzles, Remote Associates Test, etc.). Examples of research within each approach, their advantages and limitations are considered. Objective and subjective parameters of insight are described. Subjective parameters are understood as various forms of solvers' self-reports about their insight experience. Objective parameters are the various types of behavioral and physiological patterns that accompany the insight solution, but do not depend on self-reports of solvers. It was shown that using only one group of parameters does not allow us to uniquely classify the solution as an insight. This leads to the fact that today mixed formats used in research more often, i.e., objective and subjective insight parameters used together. As prospects for insight research, we consider the approaches, which allow self-formulation of insight criteria by a solver; take into account the individual characteristics of a solver as a factor in detecting the insight solution; teach participants to detect the insight solution and develop in participants generalized concepts about the insight solution regardless of the specific measurement procedure. |
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930–943
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This article examines the methodology of empirical research in psychology that was developed in Russia to study the structure and content of consciousness at different levels, individual or group, with varying degrees of accessibility for reflection. The psychosemantic method stems from studies implementing Charles Osgood’s semantic differential and George Kelly’s personal construct theory. The construction of a semantic space is different from measurement procedures in the natural sciences. Rather, a system of categorical structures and connotative meanings serves as a reference for empathy, immersion of oneself in an individual or collective mentality of the other (or, in the case of studying self-understanding and reflection, in one’s own). From this perspective, psychosemantic methods are related to projective psychological tests but are more formalized, objective, and verifiable. This paper provides an account of the quantitative operational indicators applied in psychosemantics to conduct comparative studies. These indicators include the dimensionality of semantic space, (i.e., a number of generalized categories that form this space, and their hierarchical and organizational structure), and the comparative measures of similarity between spaces. Examples of using the psychosemantic approach in studying the process of categorization and perception in altered states of consciousness under hypnosis, in developmental psychology, political psychology, and psychology of art, are presented. The article presents the research carried out by the authors over different years and does not set itself the task of describing the entirety of Russian psychology on the problem of consciousness and the unconscious. |
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